IB Chemistry online course

[lauerz]

Учусь я с 20 февраля, и учусь мало. Ну написала я 10 essays, а надо к этому времени 100, и некоторые длиной в километр.
Вот сижу, втыкаю в такую тему: Chemistry and ToK
ToK - это Theory of Knowledge, иди наука о том, откуда знание берётся, как мы знаем то, что мы знаем, и прочее тому подобное.
Вообще-то от нас требуют, чтобы мы преподавали ТоК прямо на уроке химии, и на уроки биологии тоже, и кроме того, дети целый год учат предмет ТоК, и в конце концов пишут по нему essay, и если этот essay провалить, то IB диплом не получишь.
Я не больно-то вникала в это дело, т.к. более насущных проблем был целый воз, а теперь вот учусь, и пора бы вникнуть (сама же хотела учиться, потому как преподавать IB Chem без тренинга было стрёмно, тем более я не химик ничуть).

Под катом немного текста и картинка по теме.
Вот мне предлагают обсудить такую проблему на тему Chemistry and ToK:
The distinction between the Celsius and Kelvin scales as an example of an artificial and natural scale could be discussed.

Я, в общем-то, о заявленной проблеме никогда не задумывалась. Актуальных для меня шкал температуры целы три: Цельсиус, и кроме него в первые 36 лет моей жизни было только шапочное закомство с Кельвином в школе и универе, Фаренгейт,  потому что по нему живут люди в США, и опять же теперь Кельвин, потому что я его преподаю.

Прочтя вопрос о натуральной и искусственной шкале я сильно призадумалась. Натуральная - это Цельсиус, верно? А искусственная - это Кельвин, да? А зачем она тогда вообще нужна? Полезла я в интернетные дебри почитать про это дело, и вот что нашла.


Ладно, Кельвин. Зачем-то он был нужен. Целый научный труд про него был написан. (Нет, я ещё не разобралась, но вот сейчас пойду детально разбираться).
А все остальные шкалы на что?
Скажите, если знаете.
Особенно мне понравилась шкала в которой значения температуры уменьшаются  по мере того, как становится теплее, и на солнце температура вообще отрицательная.

Comments

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

From 1744 until 1954, 0 °C was defined as the freezing point of water and 100 °C was defined as the boiling point of water, both at a pressure of one standard atmosphere with mercury being the working material. Although these defining correlations are commonly taught in schools today, by international agreement the unit "degree Celsius" and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different temperatures: absolute zero, and the triple point of VSMOW (specially-purified water). This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, which defines the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature with symbol K. Absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible at which matter reaches minimum entropy, is defined as being precisely 0 K and −273.15 °C. The temperature of the triple point of water is defined as precisely 273.16 K and 0.01 °C.

History

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

In 1742, Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744) created a temperature scale which was the reverse of the scale now known by the name "Celsius": 0 represented the boiling point of water, while 100 represented the freezing point of water. In his paper Observations of two persistent degrees on a thermometer, he recounted his experiments showing that the melting point of ice is essentially unaffected by pressure. He also determined with remarkable precision how the boiling point of water varied as a function of atmospheric pressure. He proposed that the zero point of his temperature scale, being the boiling point, would be calibrated at the mean barometric pressure at mean sea level. This pressure is known as one standard atmosphere. The BIPM's 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) later defined one standard atmosphere to equal precisely 1013250dynes per square centimeter (101.325 kPa).
In 1744, coincident with the death of Anders Celsius, the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) reversed Celsius's scale upon receipt of his first thermometer featuring a scale where zero represented the melting point of ice and 100 represented the boiling point. His custom-made "linnaeus-thermometer", for use in his greenhouses, was made by Daniel Ekström, Sweden's leading maker of scientific instruments at the time and whose workshop was located in the basement of the Stockholm observatory. As often happened in this age before modern communications, numerous physicists, scientists, and instrument makers are credited with having independently developed this same scale; among them were Pehr Elvius, the secretary of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (which had an instrument workshop) and with whom Linnaeus had been corresponding; Christian of Lyons; Daniel Ekström, the instrument maker; and Mårten Strömer (1707–1770) who had studied astronomy under Anders Celsius.
The first known document reporting temperatures in this modern "forward" Celsius scale is the paper Hortus Upsaliensis dated 16 December 1745 that Linnaeus wrote to a student of his, Samuel Nauclér. In it, Linnaeus recounted the temperatures inside the orangery at the Botanical Garden of Uppsala University:
"... since the caldarium (the hot part of the greenhouse) by the angle of the windows, merely from the rays of the sun, obtains such heat that the thermometer often reaches 30 degrees, although the keen gardener usually takes care not to let it rise to more than 20 to 25 degrees, and in winter not under 15 degrees ..."

Fahrenheit

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

Fahrenheit is the temperature scale proposed in 1724 by, and named after, the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736). Within this scale, the freezing of water into ice is defined at 32 degrees, while the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 degrees. The Fahrenheit scale was replaced by the Celsius scale in most countries during the mid to late 20th century, though Canada retains it as a supplementary scale that can be used alongside Celsius. Fahrenheit remains the official scale of the United States, Cayman Islands and Belize. The Rankine temperature scale was based upon the Fahrenheit temperature scale, with its zero representing absolute zero instead.

History (Fahrenheit)

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

According to an article Fahrenheit wrote in 1724, he based his scale on three reference points of temperature. In his initial scale (which is not the final Fahrenheit scale), the zero point is determined by placing the thermometer in brine: he used a mixture of ice, water, and ammonium chloride, a salt, at a 1:1:1 ratio. This is a frigorific mixture which stabilizes its temperature automatically: that stable temperature was defined as 0 °F (−17.78 °C). The second point, at 32 degrees, was a mixture of ice and water without the ammonium chloride at a 1:1 ratio. The third point, 96 degrees, was approximately the human body temperature, then called "blood-heat".
According to a letter Fahrenheit wrote to his friend Herman Boerhaave, his scale was built on the work of Ole Rømer, whom he had met earlier. In Rømer's scale, brine freezes at zero, water freezes and melts at 7.5 degrees, body temperature is 22.5, and water boils at 60 degrees. Fahrenheit multiplied each value by four in order to eliminate fractions and increase the granularity of the scale. He then re-calibrated his scale using the melting point of ice and normal human body temperature (which were at 30 and 90 degrees); he adjusted the scale so that the melting point of ice would be 32 degrees and body temperature 96 degrees, so that 64 intervals would separate the two, allowing him to mark degree lines on his instruments by simply bisecting the interval six times (since 64 is 2 to the sixth power).
Fahrenheit observed that water boils at about 212 degrees using this scale. Later, other scientists decided to redefine the degree slightly to make the freezing point exactly 32 °F, and the boiling point exactly 212 °F or 180 degrees higher. It is for this reason that normal human body temperature is approximately 98° (oral temperature) on the revised scale (whereas it was 90° on Fahrenheit's multiplication of Rømer, and 96° on his original scale).

Kelvin

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

The kelvin is a unit of measurement for temperature. It is one of the seven base units in the International System of Units (SI) and is assigned the unit symbol K. The Kelvin scale is an absolute, thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero, the temperature at which all thermal motion ceases in the classical description of thermodynamics. The kelvin is defined as the fraction 1⁄273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water (273.16 K (0.01 °C; 32.02 °F)).
The Kelvin scale is named after the Belfast-born, Glasgow University engineer and physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907), who wrote of the need for an "absolute thermometric scale". Unlike the degree Fahrenheit and degree Celsius, the kelvin is not referred to or typeset as a degree. The kelvin is the primary unit of measurement in the physical sciences, but is often used in conjunction with the degree Celsius, which has the same magnitude. Absolute zero at 0 K is −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F).

[esya.livejournal.com]

какой чуши их учат... правильно мой сын говорит, что все эти бакалавраты, honors&advanced безнадежная фикция
а я ему еще не верила
Theory of Knowledge какой страшный бред

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

Это наука такая. Назвается эпистемология.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology
Я вообще в ней не очень разбираюсь, как и в целом в любой философии (ну не принимает мой мозг), но отрицать, что такое дело существует, было бы смешно.
И да, у нас в IB этому учат, а я пока для того, чтобы серьезно этому чить, не доросла.
Но я надеюсь, ты хотя бы счастлива, что твоего сына этому не учат.

[esya.livejournal.com]

ты слишком серьезно играешь в эти игрушки
и достаточно умна, чтобы отличать шелуху от реальности, глаза-то открой
хотя я понимаю, с открытыми глазами труднее добиться чести преподавать эпистеомологию ;) можно проговориться нечаянно

мой сын сам учится, и мне мозги парит такими словами, что не все его учителя слышали...

History (Kelvin)

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

1848
Lord Kelvin (William Thomson), wrote in his paper, On an Absolute Thermometric Scale, of the need for a scale whereby "infinite cold" (absolute zero) was the scale's null point, and which used the degree Celsius for its unit increment. Thomson calculated that absolute zero was equivalent to −273 °C on the air thermometers of the time. This absolute scale is known today as the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale. Thomson's value of "−273" was the reciprocal of 0.00366—the accepted expansion coefficient of gas per degree Celsius relative to the ice point, giving a remarkable consistency to the currently accepted value.
1954
Resolution 3 of the 10th CGPM gave the Kelvin scale its modern definition by designating the triple point of water as its second defining point and assigned its temperature to exactly 273.16 kelvin.
1967/1968
Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM renamed the unit increment of thermodynamic temperature "kelvin", symbol K, replacing "degree absolute", symbol °K. Furthermore, feeling it useful to more explicitly define the magnitude of the unit increment, the 13th CGPM also held in Resolution 4 that "The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is equal to the fraction 1⁄273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water."
2005
The Comité International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM), a committee of the CGPM, affirmed that for the purposes of delineating the temperature of the triple point of water, the definition of the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale would refer to water having an isotopic composition specified as VSMOW.

History (absolute zero)

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

1702–1703: Guillaume Amontons (1663–1705) published two papers that may be used to credit him as being the first researcher to deduce the existence of a fundamental (thermodynamic) temperature scale featuring an absolute zero. He made the discovery while endeavoring to improve upon the air thermometers in use at the time. His J-tube thermometers comprised a mercury column that was supported by a fixed mass of air entrapped within the sensing portion of the thermometer. In thermodynamic terms, his thermometers relied upon the volume / temperature relationship of gas under constant pressure. His measurements of the boiling point of water and the melting point of ice showed that regardless of the mass of air trapped inside his thermometers or the weight of mercury the air was supporting, the reduction in air volume at the ice point was always the same ratio. This observation led him to posit that a sufficient reduction in temperature would reduce the air volume to zero. In fact, his calculations projected that absolute zero was equivalent to −240 °C—only 33.15 degrees short of the true value of −273.15 °C.

History (absolute zero)

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

1777: In his book Pyrometrie (Berlin: Haude & Spener, 1779) completed four months before his death, Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728–1777), sometimes incorrectly referred to as Joseph Lambert, proposed an absolute temperature scale based on the pressure/temperature relationship of a fixed volume of gas. This is distinct from the volume/temperature relationship of gas under constant pressure that Guillaume Amontons discovered 75 years earlier. Lambert stated that absolute zero was the point where a simple straight-line extrapolation reached zero gas pressure and was equal to −270 °C.

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

1802: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) published work (acknowledging the unpublished lab notes of Jacques Charles fifteen years earlier) describing how the volume of gas under constant pressure changes linearly with its absolute (thermodynamic) temperature. This behavior is called Charles's Law and is one of the gas laws. His are the first known formulas to use the number 273 for the expansion coefficient of gas relative to the melting point of ice (indicating that absolute zero was equivalent to −273 °C).
1848: William Thomson, (1824–1907) also known as Lord Kelvin, wrote in his paper, On an Absolute Thermometric Scale, of the need for a scale whereby infinite cold (absolute zero) was the scale's null point, and which used the degree Celsius for its unit increment. Like Gay-Lussac, Thomson calculated that absolute zero was equivalent to −273 °C on the air thermometers of the time. This absolute scale is known today as the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale. It's noteworthy that Thomson's value of −273 was actually derived from 0.00366, which was the accepted expansion coefficient of gas per degree Celsius relative to the ice point. The inverse of −0.00366 expressed to five significant digits is −273.22 °C which is remarkably close to the true value of −273.15 °C.

[kuksha.livejournal.com]

Tak kakie kriterii 'natural' sistemy?
Krome perekhodnyh sostoyanij vody nichego v golovu ne prikhodit.
S drugoi storony, Kelvin ot absolutnogo nulia pliashet. Rasskazhi, ochen' interesno.
A etot samyj ToK vpolne osmyslennaya vesch', no ne znaju, naskol'ko ego mozhno prepodavat' shkol'nikam, mne b kazalos', chto ochen' netrivial'nyj kurs. S drugoi storony, von skol'ko shkol'nikam netrivial'nogo prepodajut

[lauerz.livejournal.com]

На воде, да. Ты ссылки-то мои почитай, что ж я зря их, что ли, пощу?
Абсолютный ноль посчитали теоретически ещё в 1703 году, малёхонько ошиблись. А потом несколько раз посчитали теоретически уже в 19 веке (см ссылки опять же). И придумали шкалу с нулём в абсолютном нуле.
Да, ТоК нормально, и дети, кстати, не жалуются.
Можно его преподавать школьникам, жаль, что нам не.
Но в моей жизни Анохин часто по эпистемологию говорил. Видишь, как, вот и опять я с ней встретилась.

[kuksha.livejournal.com]

U menia otets eju zanimalsia.
Pochitat', govorish'. Znaesh', naskol'ko prosche i priyatnee, kogda tebe professional-Rabinovich napevaet?